This dissertation chapter aims to shed new light on the western Indian ocean in the early 16th century as a space that was being re-shaped by the emergence of three major early modern empires, the Portuguese, Ottomans, and Mughals. Instead of setting a disproportionate focus on the Portuguese, this paper widens the perspective to both sides of the Arabian Sea, looking at moments of friction, overlap, interaction, and rivalry at the fringes of these imperial spheres of influence. It does so by focusing on the Sultanate of Gujarat as situated in-between the three empires.

As a coastal state with important port cities, Gujarat was closely connected with the Indian ocean littoral, especially the Red Sea and the Swahili coast. This was mirrored in the fabric of the Gujarati society with prominent Persian, Ethiopian, Ottoman, and even Portuguese groups and individuals. Therefore, studying Gujarat and how it asserted itself between and against the emerging empires allows us to better understand the Indian ocean in this new age of empires. The chapter will show how Ottoman guns and militarily expertise found their way into Gujarat, and the role they played in the wars with the Mughals and Portuguese. A group of Turkish individuals, often referred to as Rumi elite, was an important vehicle for this exchange. I argue that the Ottoman empire was present in the Gujarati geographical imagination of the Indian Ocean. It was seen as a powerful player in the region, a resource for military support, a last resort, and a recipient for Gujarati expectations. Opportunities and dangers posed by the rivaling empires will also be discussed, and the creative diplomatic strategies on various levels of governance, trying to play out the enemies against each other. The paper will furthermore explain the unique event of Bahadur Shah evacuating his treasury and harem to Mecca as a reaction to his defeat by Humayun.

Pre-Circulated Paper

The pre-circulated paper will be available one-week prior to the workshop. The paper will be available to the Princeton University community via SharePoint. All others should request a copy of the paper by emailing Sunaina Danziger.